Battery Manufacturing

End products

Battery manufacturing yields two primary end products: battery cells and packs. Battery modules function as intermediate products, assembled into packs for electric vehicles (EVs) or electrochemical energy storage systems.

Battery cells

Based on applications, battery cells are classified into EV cells, stationary energy storage battery cells, and 3C cells (for computer, communication, and consumer electronic products), . We exclusively source battery cells for EVs and stationary energy storage systems.

• EV cells: High energy density for extended vehicle range.
• Energy storage cells: Lower energy density; retired EV batteries can be repurposed as second-life batteries for energy storage projects.

Chemically, cells can be lithium-ion, sodium-ion, etc., and further categorized into solid-state or liquid electrolyte batteries. Manufacturing capacity is measured in GWh per year, reflecting rate capacity.

Battery packs

Battery packs, the functional units powering EVs or energy storage systems, may not be assembled by the cell manufacturing plant. Specifications are often pre-ordered by EV manufacturers or energy storage system integrators.

Establishing a battery pack plant costs significantly less than a battery cell plant due to the complexity of the cell-making process. The construction cycles are also shorter.

Life cycle

The battery life cycle involves refining active materials, component manufacturing, deployment, retirement, and subsequent recycling.

Components

Four key components include cathode, anode, separator, and electrolyte.

• Cathode: Popular components include LFP, LMFP, NMC, NCA, NMCA for lithium-ion batteries. Sodium-ion batteries use emerging materials. Cathode manufacturing is measured in kilometric tonnes (kt) per year.
• Anode: Common materials include graphite for lithium-ion batteries. Emerging materials include silicon for increased capacity and hard carbon for sodium-ion batteries. Anode manufacturing is measured in kilometric tonnes (kt) per year.
• Separator: Two types - wet and dry - with integrated ceramic coatings for improved performance and safety, measured in million square meters (mm sq m) per year.
• Electrolyte: Solid, liquid, or a mixture, measured in kilometric tonnes (kt) per year.
  (LiPF6 is typically measured in solid form; the conversion ratio between solid and liquid LiPF6 is approximately 1:3)

Recycling

Battery recycling includes disassembly, metallurgy(hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy), and can be vertically integrated or performed by different entities. Plants can perform both recycling and manufacturing without conflict, as recycled materials can be used in manufacturing processes.

Disassembly and metallurgy capacities are measured in kilometric tonnes (kt) per year, equivalent to EV batteries. The capacity for processing black mass would be recorded as an alternative capacity.